I’ll be driving back down to LA tomorrow, down the coast, so I may not be posting much until tomorrow night or Tuesday. Thoughts on the conference later.
Category Archives: Space
Craig Venter
Has synthesized a megabyte chromosome. Everything in the cell was derived from the chromosome and the natural traces were all deleted. They are digitizing biology. Converting analog genetic code to digital. Now they can go the other way, from ones and zeros to living organisms. Huge progress over past two decades. Big breakthrough new algorithm in 1995. New approach to sequencing pieces by breaking them down and putting into the computer. Government review process said it couldn’t work, so they had to find their own money. After it proved they worked, more money than they knew what to do with. Worked from microbes to humans in five years. First published in Science about ten years ago. First diploid genome in 2007. Used his own to avoid having to get permissions. It has now become de rigeur to put your genome on the Internet. Found that there is 1-3% difference between unreleated humans, which is ten times more than previously thought.
Had hoped for first synthetic species last year, but was wrong. Needed proofreading software. Had a sequence that could boot with ten synthetic sections and one natural one, so they knew where the problem was.
44% of genes have more than one heterozygous variant. Amazing that we have so much in common, and that things work as well as they do. Now can buy a small machine for half a million dollars that will sequence a genome in a couple days. Seeing more variation in Africa than between African, Venter, and Chinese.
NASA has been doing selection for a long time, but not calling it that, by screening for things like inner-ear changes, rapid bone regeneration, DNA repair, strong immune system, small stature, high energy utilization, low risk for genetic disease, etc. Have more microbes than human cells (we have several trillion bacteria), and their gene population exceeds ours by orders of magnitude. Millions of genes in mouth, intestinal tract, vagina, etc., and we don’t know much about them. Thousands of new ones brought up to ISS every trip. Have to understand out own genetic code, the codes of the microorganisms, and the interactions between them and the environment. Starting to make progress as we learn more. Esophageal cancer fastest growing one since seventies, and don’t know if microbes are causal, or symptom. Studying metabolomics of microbes. Ten percent of chemicals in our bloodstream are bacterial metabolites, and we don’t know if they help, hurt, cause or suppress disease, cause mood, etc. Need to know microbes and correlate. Important for space trips, and more important for long ones. Synthetic biome community might eliiminate disease organisms (infections and dental decay). Eliminate methanogens and sulfur producers. Body odor primarily caused by microbes. Best way to eliminate smell of armpits is to kill microbes (alcohol works better than perfume). Add cells that help metabolize algae-based food. There is an abundance of microbes (half of earth’s biomass). Has taken samples every two hundred miles in the ocean by filtering seawater, and sequence everything on the filters. Don’t know what they look like, but know what their genomes look like. Expected limited diversity in each area, but discovered great amount, and discovered many new organisms from sequencing. Also looked at deep-sea microbes near volcanic vent. Don’t need organic compounds, make everything from CO2 and hydrogen as energy source. Found same level of diversity deep in the earth, but more clusters like people expected in the oceans, perhaps because of radiation protection and less mutations. No point in sequencing new mammals to look for new genes — have probably seen it all, but microbes can provide new genes from any new sample.
Minimal life — smallest genome, 482 protein-coding genes and 43 RNA, discovered in 1995. Don’t know how small one can go, how many are essential for cellular life. Did gene knockouts, but discovered that only way to get there was synthesis. Comparative genomics can only take us so far. Over half of human genome are transposons, that can randomly insert in the cell. If cell survives gene replacement, defined as non-essential, but what’s essential and non-essential depends on context (e.g., sucrose and glucose can keep alive, but one or the other can’t). Knocking out a gene doesn’t tell you whether its function is essential, because there may be redundancy. Questions: could they make a synthetic DNA, and could they boot it up? Longer the genes, more errors, so needed error-correction methods. Discovered that the software could build its own hardware for virii. Thought it would be harder to boot up a full bacterium than a virus. Converted one species into another by reprogramming DNA. Isolated DNA, figured out ways to inject in a related cell. Thought would have to eliminate chromosome in recipient cell, but discovered that enzymatic processes in the cells would do it for them. Cell briefly has both chromosomes, it starts to make new enzymes, including restriction enzymes that chew up the original DNA, and a new cell with the coding of the donor cell. This allowed transplants (2007). They could then start to build up a new organism, piece by piece.
D/ radiodurans: “the ultimate DNA Assembly Machine.” Highly radiation resistant, but couldn’t get it to work outside the cell. Based on yeast, managed to assemble 600,000 base-pair organism, but couldn’t boot it up. Breakthrough was simple in-vitro recombination, with three enzymes, and one-step reaction at 50 degrees centigrade, allowing automation (just synthesized mouse genome). Can imagine robot that can “learn” how to do this, accelerating learning rate. Problem was assembling in a eucharyot, but having problem getting the chromosome from yeast and transplanting into another organism. Discovered that they had to methylate it. Now can modify things with yeast, isolate it, methylate it, and transplant into target organism. DNA synthesis no longer the barrier.
Now they’re watermarking the genes with things like quotes from James Joyce (got complaints from his estate for copyright violation). Idea is to put stop-codes in to not overrwrite critical parts.
They’re now up to a millions base pairs, and now that things are automatable, entering a new era. 40 million genes discovered to date, are the design base for the future. Will be able to specify metabolism to design future organisms. Because so much gene diversity, and so few scientists, need more approaches for rapid screening, and pass results on to the humans. select for chemical production, viability, etc.
Could use for mitigating carbon buildup, provide medicine, food, clean water as population grows. Three people alive on the planet for every person in 1946 when he was born, and soon four. Need new approaches. Plants not very productive systems, very limited, but microalgae has good potential (orders of magnitude better for fuel production). Only making ethonol from corn because there is a corn lobby, not because it’s smart. Designing fuels with CO2 as a carbon source. Instead of squeezing cells, getting them to pump the fuel out continuously. Exxon has put $600M on the line to do this. Expect useful economic processes in ten years. Have to design new algae strains to get there, because no natural ones will do the job. Food production for spaceflight very inefficient, but new designs can improve. Totally within the realm of the next few years. Microbial fuel cells also key application, with drinking water as output. Some bacteria use nanowires that can interface with the metal. Also working on reverse vaccinology, focusing on meningitus B and flu. Could help with rapid production of new vaccines, no longer grow them in chicken eggs.
Many reviews of the ethics of this: first priority of the Obama bioethics committee. This is likely to be the number one wealth generator for the next century. At early stages — first stage took fifteen years (longer than expected). What took years can now be done in a day, and shortly will be able to do millions of times per day.
For spaceflight, need to look at human genetic code, sequence microbiome to understand their influence on health and disease, and then all the issues from food, recycling waste, and perhaps even improve on stem cells to make us more radiation resistant/protective.
The Sacrifices I Make For You
Craig Venter is speaking next, on synthetic genomics. I’m missing at least the first half of the Michigan-Penn State game so I can report it. I’ll be interested to see if he discusses space applications.
By the way, be sure to check out Space Transport News and Parabolic Arc for more conference coverage, as well as the conference Twitter feed.
Pete Worden is speaking now, and commenting on the fortunate confluence of the two conferences that allowed this talk. Venter one of the leading scientists of the 21st century, with over 400 scientists on staff devoted to genetic research and associated moral issues.
Water Wall
Ames is presenting a concept for life support that doesn’t biologically recycle, but utilizes membrane technology in a “water wall” (postulated as necessary for radiation protection) to help provide water and oxygen, using existing technologies. Uses osmotic concentration, distillation, forward osmosis power system to generate electricity. Usually concerned that this presentation is too futuristic for audiences, but happy to present to one that will consider it very conservative. Big recent breakthrough is in membrane technology. Waste water provides radiation protection, as does purified product. Can keep membrane from fouling for decades using forward osmosis. Membranes packed dry as part of expandable structure, then water is pumped into bags on orbit (eliminates need for heavy lift). Bags get “used up” after a while, at which point they get used for humus. Humus used for planetary applications. For transit mission, it becomes a precipitate radiation shield (sheet rock) even without water. Treats air by gas exchange membranes, strip out organics and CO2, can also control temperature, and even remove water vapor for dehumidifying. Might also grow algae to convert CO2 to oxygen with sunlight.
Life Support
Taber MacCallum: Learned several things from ISS. Ability to assemble systems, and amazing accomplishments, relative to what was though possible decades ago. Environmental control system is current state of the art. Discussing Biosphere 2. Took five months to make a pizza, starting with mating goats to get milk. Had materials and feedstock to build parts as needed. As time went on, had to fight equipment problems. Psychological problems tougher than technical ones, but can be conquered. ISS different kind of complexity, but helps us calibrate ourselves for the technologies needed for space settlement.
We are not ready to do closed-loop life support. Systems too complex, unreliable for remote planetary bodies. need to look at problem at an architectural level. Have to be tested for at least duration of time you plan to be using it for, so for two year mission, need six years lead time, including development. Could be a decade or two before we know if we’ll have a system for surface of the moon or halfway to Mars. If Bobby Braun wants to change the game, need to start doing ground test facilities now, and really go the duration, including people inside for that duration. And this won’t take into account problems of space environment (low gravity, etc.).
“State of the art is we don’t have a fully regenerative system, and it won’t keep working for very long.”
Lee Valentine: Cleaning air is easy, cleaning water is easy, nutritious food is easy with fish. Hard problem is recycling sewage into food. Have to recycle as much waste as possible. Assumptions: gravity is needed, energy by sunlight, 3600 calories per person per day. Big trade in system is biologic fixation (legumes) versus Haber Bosch method.
Aquaculture unit, vermiculture unit (red worms), fungi unit, waste management system. Two-person system would fit into Bigelow Sundancer. BA-2100 obviously much better for testing. Differences from previous systems: water cycle focuses on plants, which need it more, biological design is self designing and self correcting, and optimal nutrition, rather than wheat and potatoes, which is a highly deleterious diet. Recycling nitrogen and carbon the overriding challenge. Need to focus on deadlocked material. Water for food production several times higher than direct human requirements. Handling toxins and contaminants uses initial anaerobic stage (including the production of methane if desired). Worms can be backup food source. (Ewwws from audience). Mushroom culture provides water and humus which can be mixed with regolith for soil.
Hybrid of biological and physicochemical systems appears optimal. Best mix of plant and animal systems remains unknown. Need to think about synthetic biology and not constrain ourselves to existing species.
Start soon, start small (many can be done with minimal equipment), need not have closed atmosphere for most of experiments.
LEO Game Changers
Joe Carroll is giving a talk on some long-shot “wild cards” that could have a high payoff. One of them is aerosnatch of first stages, which could simplify launch system design by eliminating the need for flyback, and has such a high payoff in performance, that he suggests we understand it better before making any decisions on heavy-lift design, because it may set an upper limit on economical launch vehicle size.
Another is recycling aluminum on orbit, as a first step toward processing true extraterrestrial materials. He points out the bizarre (and typical of a government) situation in which everyone agrees that orbital debris is a problem, but there is no budget for it anywhere in the federal government. Also discussing slings and elevators, propounding the advantages of the former over the latter. For people to an from LEO, elevators, but for a lot of payload beyond, slings are the way to go. Makes an analogy of going from ships to railroads. Rockets are the ships, slings are the railroads (the latter requires an up-front infrastructure, and is limited in destination, but very efficient once in place). Thinks that the first sling will be at 51.6 inclination, second at zero.
Top Ten Technologies For Reusable CisLunar Transportation Architecture
Dallas Bienhoff:
Architecture has propellant depots, “depot tugs” between LEO and EML1, and landers from EML1 and the moon. Breaking up propulsion steps makes system more efficient. Can be launched and supported in 25-ton chunks (no HLV needed). Can also get tonnage back to LEO via aerocapture, to allow delivery of lunar water there.
Consists of personnel modules (zero-gee and g-oriented), propellant carrier, two modular depots, reusable transfer vehicles, aerobraked reusable vehicle, lander, all Lox/hydrogen.
Top ten techs:
10. Variable mixture ratio lox/hydrogen engine.
9. Low-g and zero-g oxygen/hydrogen liquefaction
8. Low-g water electrolysis
7. Deep-space autonomous rendezvous and docking (AR&D)
6. Aerocapture (need to fly aerocapture experiment from eighties that never flew)
5. Long-life reusable lox/hydrogen engine
4. Aero-assisted entry, descent and landing
3. Long-term zero-g cryo storage
2. Zero-g cryo transfer
1. Zero-g cryo fluid management (storage). Can be done with cryo coolers.
NASA flight technology demos (FTDs) support some but not all, but schedule far too long. Really important stuff out in 2025 time frame.
10, 9, 8, 7 and 5 (half of them) not covered by FTDs.
Needed now, cryo management, storage, transfer.
Next, AEDL, then aerocapture.
First three technologies enable depots, AEDL enhances ETO propellant tankers, long-life engines help cost, deep-space enables depot assembly and lander/stage mating.
Overall, enable reusability, enhance efficiency, promote reduced propellant delivery cost to LEO.
[Update a while later]
Dallas went too fast for me to capture everything, but in answer to a comment here, the reason for variable mixture ratio is that due to other uses (e.g. oxygen for life support), differential boil-off rates in storage, etc., you can’t count on any particular mixture ratio. Electrolysis gives you stoichiometric output, but while that’s the most efficient ratio in terms of energy production, it doesn’t maximize specific impulse (6:1 is the best for that). But the point is that you don’t want to waste any propellant when it cost so much, so you don’t care about Isp per se, as long as the engine can turn whatever ratio into useful thrust. The trades for this problem are very different than the ones for launch systems, when propellant, in whatever ratio desired, is a trivial part of the launch cost.
Transportation Session
Gary Hudson, chairing session, thanking Robin Snelson and Lee Valentine for reviving the conference series. Sobered by the fact that the last time he chaired a session at a Space Manufacturing Conference was almost three decades ago. He leads off with a discussion of advances in space transportation over the past three decades.
Nothing else matters as much as low-cost, routine and reliable LEO access — once in orbit, halfway to anywhere else.
Biggest challenge not technology. It’s market demand, financing and naive regulation. Don’t need “destinations,” or “heavy lift.” This building was built in pieces weighing less than ten tons at a time. Historically, NASA opposition was a concern, but that is the case no longer. Now it’s Congress.
Space launch expensive because we throw the vehicles away, and we fly them only once (reduces reliability). Don’t fly often enough, don’t climb learning curve, to amortize development costs. Everything has been tried, and nothing has worked. Nowhere close to a breakthrough (in terms of propellant costs becoming significant), because of the standing army. ULA, Orbital and SpaceX have developed “commercial” vehicles, but still haven’t fundamentally reduced cost of access to space.
Problem is the gap in market elasticity. Reducing price doesn’t increase revenue in current region of price. Reducing cost to a thousand or five hundred dollars a pound reduces revenue, because demand doesn’t increase fast enough until price far below that. Incentives are to maintain status quo. Need new markets, near-term “affirmative action” missions from NASA to get us over the hump (ISS resupply, prop depots, debris cleanup, exploration support). Not necessarily inappropriate, since past government policies have put us in this box. Medium term, tourism will provide useful markets, but long term goal must be settlement.
Technical roadblocks: no breakthroughs needed, but risk and cost reduction via NASA tech development can be useful.
Political: end to cafeteria filling, and recognizing role of private sector.
Legal: should be based on sensible engineering and science rather than emotional regulation (example of having to watch for desert tortoises on the runway for Burt’s spaceplanes, but not airplanes).
Financial: question not whether or not we can finance, the issue now is global economic collapse and whether the dollar will be worth anything in three months.
No social breakthroughs needed — we’re ready.
Needed breakthroughs:
Patient risk capital (this is where NASA can help).
Paradigm/Perceptual change — need to fix broken regulatory regime (e.g. ITAR), NASA brother-in-law problem.
Technical — highly reusable engines, innovations such as tethers, which is a “good cheat.”
What we don’t need: scramjets and airbreathers.
RLV technologies neede: active sluid cooling for entry, highly operable engines.
Achievable price goals: $500/lb within five years, $100/lb within ten to fifteen. Assuming RDT&E amortized through public/private partnerships, and that standing army is sized for business, not government pork.
Introducing Dallas Bienhoff of Boeing
Live Blogging Jeff Greason
From his opening remarks for the Space Manfacturing Conference.
Didn’t want to be in the rocket business, just wanted a ride. Believed all the claims about the Space Shuttle, and they didn’t happen and got tired of waiting, so now in the rocket places. No point in going just to go — have to have some reason, something to do when you get there. If you haven’t figure out how to use this new land, what’s the point? People have seen that there was no point, but there still can be, but not a focus of what we’ve been doing in space. The point is to live there.
In the 21st century, with amazing technological powers, living twice as long as previously imagined. But we’re not proud of what we’ve done, but seemingly ashamed of it. Almost cowering and unwilling to take on the responsibility of wielding the power we’ve created. It’s a symptom, the disease is the closing of the frontier. New things bring new problem, with new opportunities, but in a society when you think we’ve got all we can, change is a threat. From feeling of running out of resources to thinking that it’s time to shift from creating to redistributing. While we sit on the edge of an ocean full of limitless resources. Worrying about our impact on earth’s climate and environment when Mars sits there begging for an impact on its climate and environment, just to warm it up a little. Time to reach out and grab what the universe is offering us. Picked up a book by Heppenheimer called “Colonies In Space.” Can look back with thirty years of experience and see that some of the technical concepts weren’t quite right, and some of the economics weren’t quite right, but one could say the same about Newton. Someone had to be the first to stand up and say, don’t these people need jobs, something to do to pay their way there? Don’t they need a cash crop, just as every migration has had. Gerry O’Neill was that man, we’re all Gerry’s kids, and it’s time to pick up where he left off, and start thinking afresh about how we get out there, make it pay, leave this earth with people who will not come back, and make it the next part of this great human adventure.
Space Conestogas
I have a piece on Bigelow’s recent announcements at Popular Mechanics.